Session Descriptions

4x4 SAR -- Being Prepared
Bill Burke
Oct. 18, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m. Classroom
Oct. 18, 1:30 - 3 p.m. Field
SAR missions often entail rapid deployment, making preparation a key component of success. This course will cover vehicle, equipment and personal preparation, including maintenance, loading and tie-down issues, as well as what to carry and why to carry it. Specific topics will include tires, suspension, on-vehicle equipment and how mission and terrain impact vehicle choice. It will also cover "bug-out bags" and personal recommendations for survivability, incident command and leadership.

4x4 SAR -- Recovery
Bill Burke
Oct. 17, 1:30 - 3 p.m. Classroom
Oct. 17, 3:30 - 5 p.m. Field
Vehicle recovery -- otherwise known as "getting unstuck" -- requires both the right tools and the skills to use them safely. In this course, Burke will cover terminology, current technology, rigging, communications and operational safety. Students will learn through a combination of classroom presentations, skill-building scenarios and in-field exercises. Handouts and equipment will be provided. Students should bring work gloves and appropriate footwear.

Advanced SAR Communications
David Billstrom
Oct. 16, 3:30 - 5:30 p.m.
In this combined classroom and field workshop developed for field personnel, Billstrom will demonstrate how to increase communications effectiveness and efficiency, as well as a few "tricks of the trade" for searchers in rugged terrain. The focus will be on the use of handheld radios, and both newcomers and experienced SAR personnel are welcome. Participants should bring their own SAR field radio to the workshop.

Avoid Legal Trouble: Procedural Guidelines for SAR Managers and Responders
Sharon Ward
Oct. 18, 1:30 - 3 p.m.
Search and rescue managers and responders are action-oriented people who want to serve the community. Typically, they are far less interested in maintaining their organization's legal structure and procedures. In this class, Ward will outline the steps necessary to assure that the organization is structured and operates in a manner to avoid legal trouble. She will discuss the advantages of updating the team's legal documents and carefully defining the team's standards, as well as the importance of documenting activities and creating a clear, written policy manual. Ward will also discuss recent developments in case law and techniques for minimizing exposure to lawsuits.

Awareness Training for Waterborne Animal Rescue
Graham Phalen
Oct. 16, 1:30 - 3 p.m.
Are you prepared to handle a flood victim who refuses to leave the danger zone without their pet? This problem caught many rescuers off-guard during the flooding in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. In this course, students will learn about the problems that are an inevitable part of interacting with animals in a waterborne environment, and how to solve them. It will prepare rescuers to keep themselves, the victims and the animals safe.

Basic Canine Field First Aid
Heidi Houchen
Oct. 16, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m. (Part 1 --Classroom)
Oct. 16, 1:30 p.m. - 3 p.m. (Part 2 -- Interactive Lab)
This presentation will focus on the initial assessment, medical care and transportation of the injured dog -- starting with a classroom presentation followed by an interactive laboratory. A brief overview of the canine physical exam will be conducted, along with proper restraint and handling techniques. The application of splints and bandages and the essential components of a first-aid kit will also be covered, along with new canine CPR guidelines. In addition, specific hazards that SAR dogs may face in the field -- such as snake bites, hypothermia, heat stroke and near-drowning -- will be addressed.

Basic Learning Theory: The Science of How Dogs Learn
Faye Munk-Silverstein
Oct. 16, 1:30 - 5:30 p.m.
Many of the biggest obstacles in the human-canine relationship are grounded in mis-communication, according to Munk-Silverstein. In this extended session, she suggests that in order to be effective trainers, the participants must first understand how dogs learn. The presentation will focus on the science behind learning and how it applies to hands-on dog training.

The Basics of Cell-Tracking
Sara Brown
Oct. 17, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
Learn about cellular tracking technology and its uses and limitations during search and rescue missions. Different cellular carriers use different technology, which affects the accuracy of the data, as do environmental factors such as terrain. This presentation will include an overview of recent cases that involved cell phone tracking.

Basic Water Safety and Survival for Rescuers
Scott Walker
Oct. 16, 9 - 10:30 a.m. (Classroom)
Oct. 16, 11 a.m. - 5 p.m. (Field)
In this day-long session, which combines classroom and field training, students will develop a basic understanding of the hazards associated with moving water. After a classroom orientation, the course will travel to a local river to learn fundamental survival techniques. Students should plan to enter the water and moderate physical exertion is required.

Becoming Track Aware
Stan Robson
Oct. 16, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m. Classroom
Oct. 16, 1:30 - 3 p.m. Field, Part 1
Oct. 16, 3:30 - 5 p.m. Field, Part 2
In this course, which will feature both classroom and field components, Robson will introduce students to the history, concepts and applications of tracking. This includes becoming familiar with the terminology of tracking, the use of appropriate tools and communicating effectively with teammates.

Bones in the Field: Determining the Difference Between Human and Non-Human Skeletal Remains
Veronica Vance
Oct. 16, 3:30 - 5:30 p.m.
This presentation begins with a short course in human skeletal anatomy, so that participants will be better equipped to determine the nature of skeletal remains found in the field. A hands-on approach will be used to familiarize search and rescue personnel with the anthropological techniques used to determine whether or not the bones belonged to a human.

The Case No One Wants... The Missing Child in Town
Jeffrey Green
Oct. 17, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
Green will describe the resources that are available from the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, as well as providing guidelines used by detectives and police when looking for a missing child in an urban environment. In addition, he will provide insights regarding the interaction between law enforcement and other members of the SAR community.

Could You Be a Survivor?
Peter Kummerfeldt
Oct. 17, 9 - 10:30 a.m.
The session will describe the psychological and physiological issues that a potential survivor needs to consider during a life-threatening episode in the wild. It will also lay out a blueprint for survival that clearly identifies the steps that will offer the best chance for success, from preparation to recovery.

Dementia and Despondents
Robert J. Koester
Oct. 16, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
A survey of the International Search & Rescue Incident Database reveals that two of the more common, and mysterious, subject profiles are persons suffering with dementia and despondents. Their behavior is different than that of lost hikers and hunters. Following a review of thousands of such cases, Koester has gained insights that will benefit searchers and incident commanders. In addition to describing how and where to look, he will provide a basic understanding of diseases such as Alzheimer's. Emerging technology to address the issue of wandering will also be explored.

Drug and Alcohol Subject Profile
Robert J. Koester
Oct. 16, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
Subjects under the influence of drugs and alcohol are one of the newest additions to the International Search & Rescue Database. In this session, Koester will cover the essential aspects of conducting a search for a missing person who is under the influence of drugs or alcohol. Specific topics will include overall behavioral attributes, key investigative points, reflex tasks and basic statistics. Participants will have the opportunity to review several incidents.

Emergency Management of Fractures: Field Stabilization
Erik Martin
Oct. 17, 1:30 - 3 p.m.
This session will cover the types of fractures that are commonly seen in the field, as well as their associated co-morbidities and procedures for stabilization and transport. Different types of splints will be available for examination.

How the Brain Processes Visual Images and the Connection to Probability of Detection
Skip Stoffel
Oct. 17, 9 - 10:30 a.m.
This session will explore the problem of object/subject recognition, and why this seemingly simple task is in fact so difficult. Extensive research has been done on human vision and recognition, and Stoffel argues that these must be incorporated into both training and actual search and rescue missions. By combining well-planned briefings with an understanding of how humans actually process visual stimulus, the chances of a successful search can be improved.

How Not to Drown at Your Own Call
John Oliver
Oct. 17, 1:15 - 3:15 p.m.
Drawn from hands-on experience on real water-rescue calls, this presentation will prepare emergency personnel from first responders to incident commanders with the tools to act safely and direct water rescue operations. This session culminates with case studies and analysis of actual incidents. Students will be encouraged to discuss their own experiences, as well.

Interoperability in the SAR Environment
David Billstrom
Oct. 16, 1:30 - 3 p.m.
Developed with SAR program managers, 9-1-1 personnel and SAR team members, this session will focus on lessons learned about how interoperability issues can affect communications during SAR missions and other emergency incidents.

Investigative and Search Considerations for Water-Related Deaths
Jeff McLennen
Oct. 16, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
This course will focus on the knowledge and skills required to respond effectively to a water-related fatality incident. McLennen will emphasize teamwork between searchers, support personnel, emergency medical services, law enforcement and the medical examiner. It will include a review of human physiology in drowning cases, as well as common injuries, circumstances and artifacts. Part of the program will feature slides from actual death scenes -- some photos may be graphic in nature.

K9 Airscent Course
Jeff Schettler, Kelli Collins and Jane Beson
Oct. 15, 9 a.m. - 5 p.m. (Part 1)
Oct. 16, 9 a.m. - 5 p.m. (Part 2)
Oct. 17, 9 a.m. - 5 p.m. (Part 3)
Oct. 18, 9 a.m. - 5 p.m. (Part 4)
Spread across all four days of the conference, this course will provide an introduction to scent-specific K9 off-lead area search work. It is unique in that it will cover the targeting of the K9 to its quarry through scent discrimination practices. Space is limited. Teams will be admitted in the order that registrations are received.

K9 Trailing Course
Jeff Schettler, Kelli Collins and Jane Beson
Oct. 15, 9 a.m. - 5 p.m. (Part 1)
Oct. 16, 9 a.m. - 5 p.m. (Part 2)
Oct. 17, 9 a.m. - 5 p.m. (Part 3)
Oct. 18, 9 a.m. - 5 p.m. (Part 4)
Spanning the entire four-day conference, this extended course will introduce K9 handlers and their dogs to scent-specific trailing techniques -- locating missing persons based on their unique odor by the path that they have taken. Participating teams will have the opportunity to certify up to the intermediate level, dependent upon ability. Space is limited. Teams will be admitted in the order that registrations are received.

Lessons in Leadership: The I-35W Bridge Collapse
Rich Stanek
Oct. 17, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
Oct. 17, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
In this session, which will be presented twice on Saturday, the sheriff of Hennepin County, Minnesota, will discuss the Aug. 1, 2007 collapse of the I-35W bridge, which killed 13 people and injured more than 100. Citizens, first responders and law enforcement personnel responded to the immediate aftermath, but in the weeks that followed, Sheriff Stanek and his deputies were responsible for recovering the victims from the Mississippi River -- an effort that ultimately required 20 days of searching. He will describe the lessons learned through his office's response to this disaster.

Maintaining Fitness and Preventing Injury for the SAR Worker
Ariel Zita Salzman
Oct. 16, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
Oct. 17, 1:30 p.m. - 3 p.m.
In this session, which will be presented on both Friday and Saturday, Dr. Salzman will discuss how search and rescue personnel can prevent and rehabilitate injuries through proper strength and conditioning techniques. In addition, she will provide suggestions about how searchers can stay fit or raise their level of fitness to meet the constantly changing demands of SAR missions. She will pay particular attention to nutritional needs during deployment as well as training guidelines. This course has something for both beginners and seasoned veterans.

Managing Risk in SAR
Martin Cowell
Oct. 18, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
In this course, Cowell will discuss the risk factors involved in conducting searches and how they can be shifted and mitigated to provide a greater margin of safety for rescuers while still providing effective search.

Missing Aircraft -- Defining the Search Area from the Ground and Air
Robert J. Koester
Oct. 16, 1:30 - 3 p.m.
This interactive presentation is built upon a 2009 study by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration that reviewed 262 missing-aircraft incidents. Koester will discuss planning considerations for both airborne and ground-based search planners. Participants will have the opportunity to practice search planning in a tabletop exercise, and recent trends in aircraft incidents will be addressed. In addition, a new model to predict missing aircraft locations will be reviewed, along with special considerations for ground resources.

Optimal Search Allocation
Martin Colwell
Oct. 18, 1:30 - 3 p.m.
Cowell will detail new procedures for optimally allocating search resources. The method to be discussed has been proven to provide significantly faster searches with a higher probability of success.

Pediatrics and Extremes of Age in the Wilderness
Darren Gillette
Oct. 17, 9 - 10:30 a.m.
The very young and the very old face unique challenges when they venture into the wilderness. In this course, Dr. Gillette will explore the physiological differences between age groups and highlight potential danger signs for each, in addition to discussing common pitfalls.

PLB/MLU Operations
Jeff Scheetz
Oct. 18, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m. (Classroom)
Oct. 18, 1:30 - 3 p.m. (Field, Part 1)
Oct. 18, 3:30 - 5 p.m. (Field, Part 2)
In this three-part course, featuring a morning classroom session followed by two afternoon field sessions, Scheetz will describe and demonstrate the function of Personal Locator Beacons, which are used worldwide, as well as Mountain Locator Units. MLUs are used exclusively on Mt. Hood, and were introduced following the Oregon Episcopal School tragedy in 1986.

Project Lifesaver
Ron Wellborn
Oct. 17, 1:30 - 3:30 p.m.
In the winter of 2007, a 10-year-old autistic boy wandered away from home. He was later found in a freezing creek, alive and unhurt. This incident prompted Wellborn to start Project Lifesaver in Oregon. Already in use by more than 800 agencies in 45 states and Canada, it uses proven technology to locate persons at risk of wandering, such as Alzheimer's patients, persons suffering with Down Syndrome, dementia and related disorders. Over the last 10 years, more than 1,900 Project Lifesaver searches have been conducted with a 100 percent success rate. Wellborn will discuss how it works and tips for starting a program.

Resource Tracking Using 'Incident Command Pro' GIS
Martin Colwell
Oct. 18, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
Learn how to use the "Incident Command Pro" software package to integrate GIS mapping with real-time global positioning satellite data to provide up-to-the-minute tracking of mobile search and rescue resources.

SAR Physician Panel
Seth Izenberg, et al
Oct. 17, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
During this free-form question and answer session with a panel of highly qualified physicians, participants are actively encouraged to ask about medical issues that they have dealt with during past search and rescue missions, as well as hypothetical scenarios. This class will provide a unique opportunity to "stump the experts" -- come prepared!

SAR/Recovery Dive Team Operations -- Staying Alive
Andrea Zaferes
Oct. 18, 1:30 - 3 p.m.
Hopelessly tangled in zero visibility water, a diver is running out of air. The backup diver's ears will not clear, making a rescue impossible. In this session, Zaferes will discuss proven procedures that can save lives in these difficult scenarios. Learn how to institute a set of contingency procedures that will keep everyone on the team safe, as well as costly and potentially dangerous mistakes dive teams make when purchasing equipment.

Scent Dynamics: What Scent Theory Has Become, or Putting Science and Plain Talk Where Theory Used to Be
Bart Wilson
Oct. 17, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
Oct. 18, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
Wilson seeks to separate theory from fact in this course devoted to canine detection of human scent. In it, he will detail different aspects of scent movement, locations where scent collects and why it collects there, as well as how to get your dog in the right place to be successful. With plain talk about scientific principles, practical demonstrations and 3D graphics, this session will present information that, coupled with body language indicators of a working dog, will better prepare the team for search missions. This course will be presented twice during the conference.

Search Planner: A Specialized SAR Resource
Skip Stoffel
Oct. 17, 1:30 - 3 p.m.
For years, search planning has been considered to be a required component of search manager training and competency. As a result, the common perception is that search managers must not only manage the search as the incident commander -- they must also plan the mission, as well. In this class, Stoffel will propose that these functions be divided, and that the search planning is a specialized skill and, like any other special resource, it must be both understood and used properly during search operations.

Skills and Knowledge Essential for Field Operations in SAR
Skip Stoffel
Oct. 18, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
Do SAR teams train their new members with the skills they need to safely accomplish their mission? Stoffel will discuss the practical skills and knowledge that are essential for all searchers to possess. Rather than re-hashing basic SAR skills, this session will serve as a reality check, describing what will be required if teams are to be successful in finding missing subjects lost in the wilderness.

SPOT Satellite Messenger -- Live to Tell About It
Rod Cummings and David Carver
Oct. 16, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
Oct. 17, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
This presentation, offered twice during the conference, will introduce participants to the SPOT Satellite Messenger: a hand-held electronic device about the size of a cell phone, capable of finding the user's location across most of the planet's land area and transmitting that information, via satellite, to friends and family or emergency responders. The session will focus on SAR applications, lives saved and recent technological upgrades to the system.

Stopping Bleeding and Tourniquet Use in the Field
Seth Izenberg
Oct. 16, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
In this course, Dr. Izenberg will discuss the danger posed by bleeding in the extremities, in addition to the use of coagulants and the appropriate use of tourniquets in the field. Participants will have the opportunity for hands-on practice with a tourniquet.

Strategies and Tactics for Rope Rescue
John Oliver
Oct. 17, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
Rope rescues are one of the most dangerous aspects of SAR missions. In this presentation, Oliver will discuss sound strategies to prepare for and implement these "high-risk, low frequency" operations. Armed with these tools, participants will progress into decision-making exercises. This interactive session will benefit both the novice rescuer and the experienced rope technician.

Survival Myths and Misconceptions
Peter Kummerfeldt
Oct. 17, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m. (Classroom)
Oct. 18, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m. (Classroom)
The goal of this session is to separate survival fact from survival fiction. What does the world "survival" really mean? Much of the advice provided in the media is impractical and will not work in the field. Learn about skills that do work under adverse conditions.

Survival Tips and Tricks
Peter Kummerfeldt
Oct. 17, 1:30 - 3 p.m. (Part 1)
Oct. 17, 3:30 - 5 p.m. (Part 2)
Oct. 18, 1:30 - 3 p.m. (Part 1)
Oct. 18, 3:30 - 5 p.m. (Part 2)
This course, which will be offered in two-part blocks during the conference, was among the most popular at last year's event. It will focus on the basic aspects of wilderness survival: how to reliably start a fire, construct and emergency shelter and attract the attention of rescuers. Practical techniques will be demonstrated during this in-the-field laboratory. Each session is limited to 15 participants.

Swiftwater Diving Search and Rescue Recovery
Andrea Zaferas
Oct. 18, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
Many dive teams make the mistake of putting an untethered diver in moving water in low-visibility conditions. Should the diver become trapped or injured, there is no direct line of access for the backup diver or surface support personnel to provide assistance. In addition, such diver-directed operations provide no means of accurately determining and documenting what areas have been searched and which were missed. Tethered swiftwater diving requires a highly trained crew of tenders and boat operators and specific anchoring techniques.

Thermal Imaging Fundamentals
Roy Malmberg and Tom Hoffman
Oct. 17, 9 - 10:30 a.m. (Classroom)
Oct. 17, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m. (Field)
Oct. 18, 1:30 - 3 p.m. (Classroom)
Oct. 18, 3:30 - 5 p.m. (Field)
This workshop, which will be offered twice during the conference, combines classroom and field learning to introduce the basics of thermal imaging. Topics that will be covered include the electromagnetic spectrum, infrared cameras and optics, thermal imaging versus other night vision technologies, factors that influence image quality, and the interpretation of thermal images.

Tips and Tricks for Making Your SAR Go Better
Tygh Thompson
Oct. 17, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
This wide-ranging discussion will cover many different aspects of search and rescue operations, from equipment and search management to base operations and communications. Appropriate for both the searcher and the search manager, many of these ideas and techniques are simple and inexpensive to implement. Class participation is encouraged -- bring your best idea and share it!

Tips and Tricks of Wilderness Medicine
Ritu Sahni
Oct. 18, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
The wilderness presents a challenging environment for the practice of medicine. Sick or injured persons are often far removed from doctors and hospitals, and have access to only the most rudimentary medical resources. In this class, Dr. Sahni will discuss the practice and pitfalls of wilderness medicine, from everyday problems to unique issues.

Training the Human Remains Detection Dog
Mack Reid
Oct. 16, 9 a.m. - 5 p.m.
Oct. 17, 9 a.m. - 5 p.m.
Oct. 18, 9 a.m. - 5 p.m.
In this 8-hour course, which will be offered in its entirely during each of the three full days of the conference, Reid will lead classroom discussions and field exercises that will prepare K9 handlers and their dogs for human remains detection missions.

Treating Crushing Injuries
Richard Gellman
Oct. 17, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
In this session, Dr. Gellman will discuss the physiology of crushing injuries and describe approaches that can be used to treat them in the field. The use of a pelvic sling will also be demonstrated.

Treating Hypothermia: Heat/Cold Injuries
Seth Izenberg
Oct. 16, 1:30 - 3 p.m. (Part 1)
Oct. 16, 3:30 - 5 p.m. (Part 2)
The wilderness environment often exposes both victims and rescuers to extremes of heat and cold. In this two-part presentation, Dr. Izenberg will describe the recognition, physiology and field treatment of hypothermia and other heat/cold injuries. Specific pitfalls will also be discussed, and questions from participants will be welcome.

Tsunami! The Effects from a Cascadia Earthquake and the Search and Rescue Response
James Roddey
Oct. 17, 9 a.m. - 10:30 a.m.
In this presentation, Roddey will describe one of the great geologic detective stories of the 20th Century and its meaning for everyone living in the Pacific Northwest -- especially search and rescue personnel and other first responders. His talk will focus on the potential for coastal and inland flooding in the event an earthquake off-shore triggers a tsunami.

USAR Awareness
John Oliver
Oct. 17, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
Following a series California earthquakes in the early 1990s, the federal government formed its first Urban Search and Rescue teams to respond to FEMA-sanctioned events in the urban environment. FEMA's failure in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina prompted several states, including Oregon, to develop their own USAR teams. This course will review the capabilities of both federal and state teams, as well as covering activation protocols and the services that the provide. This media-enhanced presentation will encourage questions and open discussion.

Using Pelvic Slings and Packaging Patient for Transport
Ameen Ramzy
Oct. 18, 1:30 - 3 p.m.
Having located a lost subject and discovered that he or she is injured, the next step in a successful rescue will be to provide initial treatment and transport the patient out of the wilderness for definitive care. Pelvic slings are a useful tool to stabilize the patient and decrease hemorrhaging, while providing increased pain control and making transport easier. In this session, Dr. Ramzy will describe the science and techniques involved in moving a patient safely.

Visual Detection
Tygh Thompson
Oct. 17, 1:30 - 3 p.m. (Part 1)
Oct. 17, 3:30 - 5 p.m. (Part 2)
This course will describe the physiology of a visual search and will explain the difference between seeing and detecting. Participants will learn how to increase their ability to detect what they are searching for by understanding how the brain and the eyes work together while searching. They will also gain an understanding of how the brain can filter out the specific things that they are looking for, and how to maximize the effectiveness of their eyes under both daylight and low light conditions.

Water SAR -- First on Scene: Planning and Assisting Water Rescue Teams
Andrea Zaferas
Oct. 18, 3:30 - 5 p.m.
This course will provide comprehensive drowning interview techniques and re-enactment skills, critical to shorten search times and help determine whether the incident is a tragic accident or a potential crime. This talk has been popular at conferences around the United States, and is essential for anyone involved in water-related accidents.

When Rescue Becomes Recovery -- Wilderness Death Investigation
Jeff McLennen
Oct. 16, 11 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
It is important that search and rescue personnel know what to do when hope of a successful rescue is lost and a death investigation must ensue. In this course, McLennen will emphasize the importance of death scene preservation, how to communicate with investigators and how SAR resources are modified and integrated into the investigation and recovery effort. By developing an understanding of death scene investigation, searchers can better understand their vital role in a successful recovery mission or evidence search.

Which Way Did He Go?
Bart Wilson
Oct. 17, 9 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
Oct. 18, 9 a.m. - 12:30 p.m.
In this session, which will be presented twice during the conference, Wilson presents the findings of his on-going seven-year research into GPS units, 3D mapping software and advanced scent theory. He will describe the various aspects of advanced scent theory and how they apply to reading your dog in various types of terrain, as well as prevailing- and micro- climactic conditions. Presented to the International Working Dog Breeder's Conference in 2009, Wilson's findings will be published in the Journal of Veterinary Behavior.